|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
will this our state have a
possibility of life and behold the light of day. Plato sees the philosopher as a
person who has passion for wisdom, not just some part of it. "The
genuine philosophers are those whose passion it is to see the truth…"
says Plato. The philosopher, according to him, is not just a lover of wisdom,
but one who loves the vision of the truth. Plato quickly moves on to the
idealism which pervades his worldview. According to him if a man loves
beautiful things, such a person is not a philosopher, because he loves only
beautiful things. The philosopher, on the contrary, loves beauty in
itself. He loves abstract and absolute beauty. Plato regards such love of the
abstract and of absolute truth as knowledge, whereas the lover of beautiful
things has only opinion. But this type of knowledge
recommended by Plato cannot fulfil the role delegated to philosophy by Plato
in The Republic. Plato's use of the word "Wisdom"
differs from the way it was used by Alfred Whitehead, who, though in some
respects is an idealist, appropriately saw knowledge as an ingredient of
wisdom. According to Whitehead, (1962:4), Wisdom is the way in which knowledge
is held. It concerns the handling of knowledge, its selection for the
determination of relevant issues, its employment to add value to our
immediate experience. This mastery of knowledge, which is wisdom, is the most
|
|
||
|
|
INTRODUCTION Nature of Philosophy Our study of philosophy shall begin with
a definition of
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
intimate freedom obtainable. Bertrand Russell divorces
philosophical knowledge from science and theology. According to him: All definite knowledge belongs
to science; all dogma as to what surpasses definite knowledge belongs to
theology. But between theology and science, there is a No Man's Land, exposed
to attach from both sides; this No Man's Land is philosophy (Russell,
1961:13). Russell is mistaken in this
divorce of philosophy from science and religion. Every human endeavour or
pursuit has philosophy guiding it. Since philosophy is essentially a
cognitive, critical and reflective enterprise aimed at problem solving, we
think that every subject has its own philosophy. There is thus, the
philosophy of science of physics, of biology, of law, of history of arts,
etc. Authur Rogers appears to be
responding to Betrand Russell when he stated as follows: Between science and philosophy of
science, history and philosophy of history, there is indeed no hard and fast
separation, but what in the one case we are specially concerned with is the
positive nature and the laws of a certain group of facts, which have been |
|
selected out from the rest of
the world to be studied by themselves, while in the other, we restore that
connection with the whole which, for the time being, we have set aside, and
try to look at our facts in the light of the meaning which they have for life
in its entirety. (Royers, 1962). It is, therefore, puzzling to
learn that Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC) in its
"rationalisation exercise" has advised that philosophy of education
be reduced by almost three quarters of its previously inadequate content. One
wonders what graduates from Education Faculties will be teaching without a
grounding in philosophy. Let us consider a recent
lecture delivered to Secondary Physics teachers at Calabar by Professor E.W.
Mbipom. The lecture contained most of the dogmas prevalent amongst some
physicists. The lecture was designed to promote practical physics course.
According to him, "students will be trained to observe and display their
observations systematically and by means of tables and graphs."
Furthermore, "students will be made aware of simple uncertainties that
invariably exist in all scientific measurements." (Mbipom, 1989). Mbipom, like many scientists,
believes that observation is a cardinal factor in matters concerning
physical knowledge. This is only partly correct. There are issues in physics,
for instance, which are not obtained from physical experience or from direct
observation. Protons, Neutron and Positrons cannot be readily |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
observed. Mesons also afford an
example of a concept in physics which has not been identified experimentally.
Mesons have been defined as a group of unstable elementary particles
belonging to the class called HADRONS. Mesons are found in cosmic rays
and are emitted by nuclei under bombardment by high-energy particles. They
are believed to consist of a quark and its antiquark. "Quarks in turn
are three HYPOTHETICAL elementary particles, with corresponding
antiparticles which are supposed to account for the composition of
hadrons." (Dic. Of Science, 1979). The point that we want to
stress here is that what we refer to as observation has some imagination and
theories incorporated within it. Scientific theories contain substantial
doses of metaphysics. Students of the sciences should be made aware of this
at the very early stage, if science is not to become another dogma. Prof. Mbipom also stated that
uncertainty depends on the measuring instrument. We would wish to add that
the nature of matter and of elementary particles, also play a vital role in
the determination of precision when we are measuring microparticles. Furthermore, the condition of
the physical environment affects the observer, measuring instrument and the
object measured. Relativistic physics and Quantum Mechanics are studying
these problems. But so too is philosophy studying the issue of knowledge and
reality under epistemology and metaphysics respectively. The moment our scientists start
appreciating the doses of philosophy in their "exact" science, that
moment shall we start having scientific break-through and discoveries. Even
mathematics, |
|
the language of science, is
thoroughly soaked in philosophy. Betrand Russell sadly recognises this and
reverses the order when writing on Pythagoras. According to Russell,
"the influence of mathematics on philosophy, partly owing to him
(Pythagoras), has, ever since his time, been both profound and
unfortunate." This aspect of Pythagoras did
not necessarily start with Pythagoras in Greece. According to Anders Wedburg,
(1982:43): The outlook of the early Greek
natural philosophy was essentially monistic. No sharp boundaries were drawn
between different regions of reality from the point of view of knowledge or
of feeling or of evaluation. This monism already appears in the fundamental
idea that everything there is can be reduced to a single primary substance. What is more, many do not
realise that the whole of Greek philosophy has its origin in ancient Africa
and from Africa's outpost in ancient Egypt. Philosophy of Mathematics You will notice that we have
jumped from mathematics to history of mathematics. We shall proceed to the
philosophy of mathematics, this is not accidental. Every subject has its
history which is also guided b0y the prevailing worldview as we have seen in
the case of Betrand Russell by Pythagoras. The philosophical content of
mathematics runs through a |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
number of concepts to proof
theories which could be considered the backbone of mathematics. The nature of
mathematical objects or numbers is still not clear to some mathematicians and
philosophers up to this moment. The same controversy surrounds the meaning
and value of mathematical proofs. Philosophy of mathematics is handling such
issues among many others. Although in modern times we
have every discipline acknowledging its philosophy, the traditional method
was to divide philosophy into the following sections: Logic, Metaphysics,
Aesthetics, Ethics and Epistemology. The realisation that the
various schools of philosophy have specific types of epistemology,
metaphysics, and logic accounts partly for the ….. (see page 3 of the book)
emphasis these traditional divisions of philosophy had. There are, however,
numerous schools of philosophy today. These include positivism, empiricism,
formalism, existentialism, phenomenalism, Marxism, logism, idealism,
materialism, monism, dualism, etc. Philosophy is now divided into
two principal groups, depending upon how each school responds to the basic
questions of philosophy. The fundamental question concerns the relationship
of thinking to being; or the relationship of consciousness to matter and
nature. This question is usually framed in diverse ways. It could be posed
this way: What is primary _ nature or mind, matter or consciousness _ and how
is the knowledge of the world related to the world itself? The answer to
these questions will eventually inform us as to whether a particular school
belongs to idealism or materialism. |
|
Philosophical materialism
posits that matter, or the material is primary, whereas ideas, the spiritual
or mind is secondary. Philosophical materialism maintains that consciousness
is a product of matter. Materialism in a strict sense, asserts that the world
is finite in time and space and is not created by God. Since materialism
maintains that consciousness is a product of matter as well as a reflection
of the external world, it is believed that the world is knowable. Contrary to philosophical
materialism, Idealism maintains that the non-material, mind, spirit, or God
is primary while the material is secondary. Idealism is the fountain spring
of many religious doctrines which state that the world has a beginning and
its finite in time and space. Consciousness is assessed by Idealist
philosophers in isolation from body and nature. The end-result of this
isolated consideration of consciousness away from body, is the mystification
of reality and the pursuit of scepticism, agnotism, and solipsism as
epistemological goals. The general crisis of idealism
and of capitalism today has led to such forms of idealism as had been hinted
earlier: Phenomenalism, critical rationalism, positivism, existentialism,
pragmatism and new-Thomism. We shall devote sometime to the study of the
various schools subsequently. This division of philosophy
into two camps _ idealism and materialism _ surfaces clearly in the
discussion of the method of tackling philosophical problems. Professor P.O.
Bodunrin has written a very interesting article on the measuring and Method
of Philosophy. In the article, Professor Bodunrin makes quite a |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
number of plausible statements
and a few contentious ones. We shall concentrate on the contentious statement
since they represent statements by some schools in philosophy. The way
Professor Bodunrin perceives philosophy led Karl Marx more than a century ago
to state that "the philosophers have only interpreted the world in
various ways, the point, however, is to change it". Bodunrin may not
oppose this Marxian position about philosophy, since he asserts that:
"Philosophy is a cognitive enterprise…philosophy has a use, a value
which transcends itself." (Bodunrin p. 23). Philosophy will not have much
practical value if it is limited primarily to "conceptual
reasoning" or analysis. Philosophy, as perceived by Professor Bodunrin
in the cited article, falls largely into the school of Analytic Philosophy.
Analytic Philosophy perceives the role of philosophy as analysis of language
in order to clarify the content of problems known hitherto as traditional philosophical
problems. According to Analytic
Philosophy, the elucidation of language will show whether a particular
problem is a pseudo-problem, whether it involves the use of particular
linguistic forms, or whether it could be solved by any of the so-called exact
sciences and, hence, not philosophical. This sounds like the position assumed
by logical positivists and allied schools. Thus, the position of philosophers
like H. Feigl, R. Carnap, W. Sellars, N. Goodman, W. Quine, etc. are
reflected by the position taken by Professor Bodunrin. The problem with Professor
Bodunrin's position is that, in stating that, "Arguments serve that same
purpose for philosophers as proofs serve the mathematician…", and in
relying heavily on |
|
definition or concept analysis,
he has simultaneously indicated that philosophical arguments lack ontological
import. By this position, mathematical truths will be known by definition.
Thus 3+5=8 will be true by virtue of the definition of "3",
"5", "+", "8" and "=". According to
A.J. Ayer and Carl Hempel who had an earlier formulation of this position,
mathematical statements like 3+5=8 is, according to them an analytic
proposition which does not provide any information about any matter of fact. This kind of position has a
serious problem for the theory of proof presumed by P.O. Bodunrin's position.
In mathematics, as in philosophy, a proof will be an argument consisting of
premises and conclusion. The premises will be the evidence for the conclusion
drawn. According to analytic thinking, the conclusion is already in the
evidence. This could lead to circularity in the important issue of definition
among analytic philosophers. What is more, traditional
logic, which informs the position of analytic philosophers, states that a
valid argument must have true premises and true conclusion. It is usually
stated that it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion
false. The notion of truth in this formulation is that of logical truth. It
is just a tautology which gives no new information and has no bearing on
reality. Truth, as we know it, is rooted in reality and, in this respect, as
tied up with objective and scientific truth. It has to be noted that the
idealist worldview to which the analytic philosophers subscribe has not been able
to do away with contradictions as the laws of thought demand in formal logic.
The discovery of contradictions and of paradoxes in mathematics continues to
bother the mathematical world despite spirited attempts |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
through clarification,
"definition" and elaboration of Theory of, Types by B. Russell,
Frege and others to make mathematics paradox free. Also to be noted is the
fact that there are always some undefined terms in arguments and in
mathematics. People have to rely on axioms and on human experience in the
pursuit of truth. The definition of concepts in "3+5=8", will
themselves need definition ad infinitum. What should be obvious by now
is that the method of solving philosophical problems do not differ from the
methods of science. In the words of Raymond Wilder, Mathematics, like other
cultural entities, is what it is as a result of collective human effort
directed along evolutionary and diffusionary lines. And what it becomes will
not be determined by the discovery of "mathematical truth" now
hidden from us, but by what mankind, via cultural paths makes it. (Wilder,
1965:298). Given the cultural foundation
of philosophy, it is perceivable why the meaning and content of philosophy
will vary in time and place. Society and societal needs will determine the
content of philosophy. What is cardinal is that the various investigations
into laws of nature eventually raise epistemology, cosmological and logical
problems. The philosophers and the scientists are, in an imperceptible
manner, dependent on each other. An examination of the various schools in
philosophy will show why it is necessary |
|
to always bear in mind that
there is some philosophy behind any purposeful human endeavour. This book is divided into three
parts. The first (Part One) treats the aspect of Philosophy known as Logic.
Under Logic topics like, Laws of Thought; Definitions; Logical Fallacies;
Sentential Logic including forms of Argument. Truth-Table Analysis;
Conditional and Indirect Proofs, Predicate Logic, Proofs in Predicate Logic,
and Theorems of Logic are some of the topics covered. Some of these topics
will have some relevance in part Three of this book dealing with Computer
Science. The second part of this book
(Part Two) is primarily devoted to the study of view. We thus, have topics on
Ancient Philosophy written by John Inyang; topics on Medieval Philosophy
written by Rev. Asira E. Asira; topics on Modern Philosophy written by
Macaulay Kanu; topics on Contemporary Philosophy written by Dorothy Ucheaga,
Inyang Effiwatt, and Emmannuel B. Eyo. The contributors were given
free hand to decide on the scope and school of thought they preferred. Thus,
the contributors are responsible for the opinions expressed in their
sections. Part Three was written by Alfred Inyang. This part deals with
Computer Science. The section introduces readers to the world of the
computer, types of computers; history of the computer and some theoretical
aspects of computer science. Introductory aspects of theory; some elements of
number theory that would be needed in mastering flow charts, algorithms, and
programming languages were introduced. This section shows in a very simple
way the connection between logic and computer science. This book is designed to cover
topics taught in the course |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
"Logic and Philosophy"
under the General Studies programme of Nigerian Universities. Philosophy
students will have quite a lot to garner from the book. People who are
interested in enhancing their reasoning and decision-making capabilities may
find it rewarding reading this book. |
|
Bibliography Ayer, A.J. (1940)l Language,
Truth and Logic N.Y. Dover Pub. Re-issued to Hempel, C. (1964) "On the nature of
mathematical Truth" Philosophy of Mathematics Selected Readings. Eds.
Benacerraf, Paul, Putnam, Hilary Englewood Cliffs: Printice-Hall. Bodunrin, P.O. (1981);
"Meaning and Method" In Ibadan Journal of Humanistic Studies, No. 1 Bunge, M. (1973); Philosophy of
Physics Dordretcht _ Holland. Diop, C.A. (1974); African
Origin of Western Civilisation: Myth or Reality? Westport: Laurence Hill & Co.
Dictionary of Science (1979); Penguin Publishers Mbipom, E.W. (1989); WAEC
SCIENCE TEACHERS SEMINAR (PHYSICS): IWTI, CALABAR (Unpublished) Diop, C.A. (1978); Cultural
Unity of Black Africa, Chicago T.W.P. Marx, K. "These on Feuerbach"
In Marx and Engels (1975); Selected Works, Moscow, Progress Pub. Onyenwenyi, P.C. (1986);
African Origin of Greek Philosophy. Owerri, Black Academi Press Rogers, A.. (1899);
"Philosophy" In Introduction to Modern Philosophy, N.Y., Macmillan. Reproduced in:
Singer & Ammerman (Eds) (1962); Introductory Readings in Philosophy New
York, Scribners |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Russell, B. (1961); History of
Western Philosophy London, George Allen & Unwin Weldberg, A. (1982); A History
of Philosophy Vol. 1. Oxford, Clarendon Press Whitchead, A.N. (1962);
"Wisdom" In: Introductory Readings in Philosophy Ed. By Singer & Ammerman. N.Y.,
Scribners Wilder, R.L. (1965); The
Foundations of Mathematics. N.Y. John Wiley. Williams, C. (1976); The
Destruction of Black Civilisation. Chicago, T.W,P. Princewill I. Alozie |
|
|
|
|
|
|
LOGIC By Princewill Alozie |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 SUBJECT-MATTER OF LOGIC AND ARGUMENTS Logic, as popularly perceived, is
interested in the study of arguments. The term Argument is
understood technically to mean: evidence and
judgement: premise and conclusion as the main structure in justifying any
position reasonably held. This means that logic is interested in arguments
for the purpose of evaluating the evidences (premises) which support the
conclusions or judgements that are rendered in various situation in life. Arguments could be Deductive or
Inductive. A Deductive Argument is usually said to be drawing conclusion from
a generalisation to a particular instance. This position as it concerns
deductive argument is fraught with problems especially when we want to
examine the basis and origin of the generalisations in the premises we have
in an argument. It is certainly less problematic if we assert that a
Deductive Argument is one in which there is LOGICAL ENTAILMENT in the relationship
between the premises and the conclusion. This logical entailment implies that
if all the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true. Logic is
the science concerned with the necessary laws and forms of thought, with the
mathematico-logical laws of computation using formalised symbolic language,
with the more general encompassing |
|
laws of thought; and with the
principles of any branch of knowledge. Formal logic has been
erroneously considered to be just deductive as against inductive logic. This
is strictly not correct, as there are other types of logic. Let us consider
for now, deductive and inductive logic. DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT: The above example
which has the following conclusion _ The University of Port Harcourt
protested against World Bank's economic measures in Africa" _ is a
deductive argument. A Deductive Argument is one whose conclusion is claimed
to follow from its premises with logical certainty. This means that it is
impossible for the evidence (premises) to be true and its conclusion false.
In other words, the |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
premises logically entails the
conclusion. We could come across deductive reasoning of this nature: If all
labour leaders struggle for working-people's welfare, and Michael Imodu is a
labour leader, then Michael Imodu struggles for working-people's welfare. In
this example as in similar deductive models, the compound premises implies
and contains the conclusion. Although we have stated that it
is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false, the
formalist school in the philosophy of mathematics asserts that logical models
are not necessarily interested in the truth of falsity of the associated
propositions. For, we could substitute stones for labour leaders and the argument
will still be valid. A deductive argument must have
at least the following characteristics: a) A deductive argument should
be valid. An argument is valid when the conclusion is so well supported by
the premises, such that the conclusion follows from the premises. b) The premises of a deductive
argument should be true. We should note at this juncture that there are
propositions which may not lend themselves to truth _ false assessment. If
you have never come across the word, you may not be in a position to assert
that statements containing such categories are true or false. Even when we
are conversant with the categories used, there is the problem of having
assessed "ALL" labour leaders in order to assert their
characteristics categorically. In this |
|
regard, deductive reasoning
contains elements of induction. To speak of "ALL" means the
realisation of elements contained in the "ALL"… Given this kind of problem, it
is suggested that validity test should be limited to the observance of
structural and logical connection between the premises and the conclusion.
The following two arguments are not valid because of their logical
unconnectedness and structural defect. EXAMPLE 1 a) Nigeria is not a member of
NATO b) Nigeria is not a member of
EEC c) Nigeria is independent of
Imperialist organisations EXAMPLE 2 a) Udofia is not a University
student b) Udofia is not a University
lecturer c) Udofia is a University
personnel In the first example, that
Nigeria is neither a member of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) nor
of ECC (European Economic Community) does not warrant us to draw the
conclusion that Nigeria is Independent of Imperialist organisations. For one
thing, it has not been explicitly stated that these organisation are
imperialist in nature, even though we have evidence from history, and
experience that they could be so properly described. For the purpose of this
argument, the logical connection between NATO, |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
EEC, and Imperialist
organisations have not been shown. The conclusion assumes that only NATO and
EEC are the imperialist organisations existing. Suppose, for the purpose of
this argument, we discover that Nigeria is a member of the International
Monetary Fund, or of the World Bank, and that we further discovered that
these financial organisations promote imperialist plans and help less
developed countries to deepen their economic crises, we would have quickly
realised the error of drawing such a conclusion. We could easily contrast these
examples of invalid deductive arguments with the following valid arguments: EXAMPLE 3 a) All Capitalists maximise
profit at the expense of human lives. b) Bashorun Sunshine is a
capitalist. c) Bashorun Sunshine maximises
profit at the expense of human lives. EXAMPLE 4 a) Either Nigeria is prepared
to be a country of slaves or She pursues a self-reliant economic policy. b) Nigeria does not pursue a
self-reliant economic policy. c) Nigeria is prepared to be a
country of slaves. In examples 3 and 4, the
premises warrants the various conclusions drawn. There is logical connection
between the premises and the conclusion. |
|
For practical purposes, it is
not sufficient for an argument to be valid. Some kind of objective truth
would be needed to make logic have great utility for mankind. Thus, an
argument can be valid and still remain an unsound argument. This is so when
the argument contains one or more false premises. The concept of SOUNDNESS
applies to and argument I f an argument is valid and its premises are all
true. 1.2 INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT Besides deductive arguments we
have the Inductive Argument. For an Inductive Argument, the truth of the
premises makes the conclusion likely or probable. Issues pertaining to the
theory of Induction could be found in the works of Aristotle, Francis Bacon,
Galilee Galileo, J.S. Mill, and others. In Inductive reasoning, single events
or facts are appraised and a general conclusion drawn from these singular
instances. There are different kinds of induction. For instance, there is
enumeration induction, summary induction, scientific induction; complete and
incomplete induction. An Inductive Argument draws its
conclusion from particular instances to a general one; from a particular
instance, event, or phenomenon to another particular one. The truth of an
inductive argument does not provide a conclusive ground for the acceptance of
its conclusion. Let us consider two different
examples of Inductive Arguments. 1. Most girls in Mother Theresa
Secondary School do badly in mathematics and chemistry. Monica Lewinsky is in
Mother |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Theresa's Secondary School.
Therefore, Monica Lewinsky will probably do badly in mathematics and
chemistry.. 2. The majority of Nigerians
are either Christians or Muslims. Bello Ekanem is a Nigerian; therefore,
Below Ekanem is probably either a Christian or a Muslim. In the first example of an
inductive argument, it is possible the Monica Lewinsky may turn out to be one
of the best mathematics and chemistry students of our time. Some factors
could cause the situation in Mother Theresa Secondary School to start
producing brilliant mathematics and chemistry students. Similarly, in the
second example, we cannot be sure Bello Ekanem could not become a Buddhist or
even an Atheist. The terms "majority", "almost all" are
not all inclusive. There could still be one in the lot that does not conform.
This explains why the conclusion is in probabilistic term. Inductive arguments like
deductive arguments have true premises. The supposed difference between them
lies in the view that the connection between premises and conclusion is not
as strong in induction as in deduction. Here are examples of Inductive
arguments: EXAMPLE 5 a) K1, K2, K3 … K11 have
strength. b) Every K is either K1, K2, K3
… or K11 . . . Every K has strength EXAMPLE 6 a) Most lawyers endeavour o
reason logically. |
|
b) Ibinagbo Okon is a lawyer. c) . (Probably) Ibinagbo Okon
endeavours to reason logically. In Example 6, we could not be
exactly sure if Ibinagbo Okon belongs to the class which endeavours to reason
logically. Since the first premises speaks of most lawyers and not all
lawyers, it means that there are some lawyers who will not belong in the
class who endeavour to reason logically. This non-inclusion of all lawyers in
that group has made us use a probabilistic term in reference to Ibinagbo
Okon's relationship to logic. Some philosophers and
scientists have argued strongly that our knowledge of the world comes from
induction. By induction here, we mean drawing conclusions from particular
instances to particular instances. There are philosophers and scientists who
argue on the contrary that deductive method is the road to new knowledge. We
shall delve into the controversy between Deductive and Inductive methods at a
later stage. It has to be stated that the division between deductive and
inductive reasoning has been correctly identified as complimentary methods of
reasoning or as different sides of the same coin. This position becomes
increasingly clearer when we recollect that formal logic is made up of
traditional logic and mathematical logic. In modern times, traditional and
mathematical logic have developed other trends which further minimizes the
presumed dichotomy between deductive and inductive reasoning. Modern logic
has some of the following trends: Modal logic which considers concepts like
"Necessary" (certain) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
and "Possible". Deontic logic which considers concepts like
"Obligations" and "Permission" Alethic logic which deals with logical possibilities.
Epistemic Logic deals with knowledge, while Boulomic
logic deals with desire. The numerous trends in logic
have made many logicians to describer logic as the science of valid inference
for the rules (or correct argument). Scientists, lawyers, and people from
various walks of life draw inferences all the time. Quite often, inferences
are manifested in the form of reasons presented to support a point of view. 1.3 Arguments Reasons presented to support a
point of view is known in every day language as an ARGUMENT. An argument to the logician is
made up of PREMISES and CONCLUSION. When we say that the lawyer is arguing
his case in the law court, we are in essence, saying that the lawyer is presenting
the premises and the conclusion that logically follows from the stated
premises (EVIDENCE). 1.4 Analysing arguments:
location of premises and conclusions Since logic is interested in
the rules of correct argument, it is important to learn how to identify
arguments when we come across them. An argument may contain one conclusion
and at least one |
|
premise. This helps us remember
constantly that the structure of an argument is made up of premises and
conclusion. Our first task will be to discover what the claim (conclusion)
is, and what evidence (premises) support the claim. Some lecturers, writers or
speakers provide clues that identify the premises and conclusion. Some of
these useful clues or indictors of argument are given below. We should however
bear in mind that these argument indictors have to be considered always
within a given context. Since we are aware that an argument contains premises
and conclusion in its structure, our analysis of an argument could proceed
fruitfully if we also look for either conclusion indicators, or premise
indictors, or both. Below are some such argument indicators: Conclusion Indictors: therefore hence so consequently thus we can conclude that Premises Indicators: because since |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for assuming that for the reason that Some of these clues or argument
indicators are located between conclusion and premises or between premises
and conclusion. Here are some argument indicators located between conclusion
and premises: (Conclusion) (Premise) "… is proven by… " " … is entailed by… "
" … is indicated by…
" " … is shown by… " " … is established by…
" Some argument indicators
located between Premises and Conclusion include: (Premise) (Conclusion) "… indicates that… " " … established that…
" " … leads us to conclude
that… " " … impels us believe
that… " " … shows that… " " … implies that… " " … entails that… " |
|
It does happen that sometimes,
writers, lecturers, or speakers do not supply argument indicators. The
assumption is made that the premise and conclusion are quite obvious and need
no indicators. The assumption is made that the premise and conclusion are
quite obvious and need no indicators. In such cases, locate the salient
features in the passage, lecture or speech. Examine these salient features or
points in order to ascertain what claim is being made. Secondly, ascertain
what evidence is presented in support of this claim. Thirdly, find out the
logical connections between the premises (the evidence) and the conclusions
(the claim being made). Example: Consider a case where a
writer's or lecture's salient points could be summarised in the following
propositions: "You should have fought
for economic independence. You proved that economic independence is the most
vital for a nation. If you proved that economic independence is the most
vital for a nation, then you should fight for it". Arrange the argument into
premise and conclusion. Sort out which of the propositions make a claim
(conclusion) and which ones offer evidence for the conclusion. After trying
the various possible rendering of the argument, we shall discover that the
most appropriate rendering of the argument will be as follows: 1) If you proved that economic
independence is the most vital for a nation, then you should fight for it. 2. You proved that economic
independence is the most vital for a nation. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
. . You should have fought for
economic The first premise states that
if you fulfil a condition (proving a fact) then a definite action (fighting
for economic independence) must follow. The second premise stipulates that
you have fulfilled the condition (of proving the fact). Now, if these
premises are true, then the conclusion (You should have fought for economic
independence) must be true There are some other ways of
identifying and analysing arguments. Consider the following approaches: Step 1: Summarise the Argument. It is necessary to understand a
speech, lecture, passage or argument in order to evaluate it properly. One
method of checking if you understand the argument is to RESTATE the argument
in your own words. Endeavour in the process to reproduce as accurately as
possible its meaning. Summarising the argument will enable you grasp what is
being claimed. Step 2: Break the argument down into premises
and conclusion. As has been stated earlier, the conclusion is what the arguer
is trying to prove. The premises are the statements presented to support a
conclusion. This step is important since the whole issue of analysis centres
on the identification of premises and conclusion. Argument Indicators could
be used when these are available and adequate. Step 3: Arrange the premises and the
conclusion in their logical order. The logical order is the arrangement that
shows how the premises support the conclusion. Putting the argument into
standard |
|
logical from will enable us
detect gaps in the argument if such gaps do exist. Existence of gaps or
missing premise could mean existence of unsupported claims. Furthermore,
putting the argument in logical form will enable us ascertain if there is any
connection between the substance of the premise and that of the conclusion. The following patterns of
argument may be useful at this stage. Some of the arguments you come across
may fall into any of these formats or patterns. Pattern Example 1. (i) a (i) Africa is a
commodity (ii) If A, then B. (ii) If
Africa is a commodity, then Buyers could purchase Africa. (iii) If B, then C If Buyers
could purchase Africa, then Africans are slaves. . . . C . ..Africans are slaves. 2. (i) All A's are B's (i) All
good governors put the interest of the governed first (ii) All B's are C's (ii) All
those who put the interest of the governed first, are .. All A's are C's
knowledgeable and wise. (iii) .. All good governors are
knowledgeable and wise. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3. (i) All A's are B's (i) All
true scientists do not submit to blind belief and faith (ii) P is an A (ii) Einstein is
a true scientist .. P is a B .. Einstein does
not submit to blind belief and faith. 4. (i) If A, then B. (i) If we
start reasoning independently, then we shall overcome the colonial
mentality. (ii) A (ii) We shall start
reasoning independently .. B .. We shall overcome the
colonial mentality. 5. (i) If A, then B. (i) If
Nigeria wants to be a technological giant, then her educational system must be
science and technology oriented (ii) If B, the C (ii) If her
educational system must science and technology oriented, then she must pursue
a socio-economic policy based on Science. . . If A, then C . . If Nigeria wants to be a |
|
technological giants, then she must pursue a socio-economic
policy based on science. 6. (i) If A, then B. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The law of Excluded Middle
states: Any proposition must be either
true or false. These laws or Principles of
Thought predate the time of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) who actually popularised
them. The title, laws of Thought, is misleading in the sense that those laws
do not prescribe how we should think. Thought takes any form and covers any
type of issue. A person's thought can be contradictory and could be justified
by the thinker. The other reason why the title could be misleading is that
there are other important logical principles yet to be considered in this
book which deserve similar prominence. The syllogisms, Modus Ponens, Modus
Tollens, De Morgan's Laws, and other Argument Forms within the Rules of
Transformation, which are important in our drawing inferences in logic,
deserve attention too. 1. On a closer examination, we
shall observe that the three laws of thought are about propositions, things,
relations in time and space, properties, evidences, conclusions, etc. in the
universe. Details about the proposition, thing or relation are not usually
provided. When we state that "A" is "A" or that
"Palm wine is Palm wine", we are affirming the law of Identity.
We have to know that we are speaking or considering the same thing. If
"A" is not "A", then there will be no reason to make use
of the other rules of inference. Palm wine is Palm wine, is true. It could be
pointed out that palm wine when treated or left to ferment, converts to
another type of alcoholic drink. Distilled palm wine is Gin. In this case,
can we still assert that palm wine is palm wine? The fact that palm wine has
transformed into gin or strong alcohol does not change |
|
||
|
|
2 LAWS OF THOUGHT Quite often, we will stumble on people or
books that describe logic as the study and
application of the laws of thought. Such proponents often
examine three major laws of thought. These laws are: 1. The law of identify 2. The law of non-contradiction
3. The law of Excluded Middle 4. The law of sufficient
Reason. Nothing can be both A and not
A. Anything must be either A or
not A. This method of presenting the
laws of thought sometimes can be confusing to new comers to the discipline.
We shall use the concept of Truth in the consideration of the laws of
Thought. Following this approach, the law of Identity stases: If any proposition is true, it
is true. The law of contradiction states: No proposition can be both true
and false. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN COMPLEMENTARITY AND AFRICAN SOCIAL RELATIONS A CASE FOR CULTURAL UNIVERSALISM By Inyang Effiwatt Introduction This paper contends that there
is a confluence or radiant as the case may be, for all cultures. By this it
repudiates the extreme cultural relativist claim that there are no cultural
universals. The central thesis put differently and succinctly is that,
cultural universals exist. Kwesi Wiredu uses the balance of the possession of
similar biologic identity and every man's ability to communicate to stake
this claim. James Rachels in addition to these, maintains that all existing
cultural groups care for their young and place value on truth telling. This
paper, however, employs the principle of complementarity implicit in quantum
mechanics to buttress this point. The Idea of Complementarity Ordinarily, the term
complementarity is derived from the word complement. Complement means either
"that which complements or complete" (Flower, 1964:247). From this
breakdown, complementarity can be said to mean serving to complete. The
notion of complementary relation between the fundamental components of nature
neither originated from nor arose contemporaneously with quantum mechanics.
As a natural principle, it extends beyond the frontiers of the physical
sciences. |
|
The concept of complementarity
is not alien to Africa. In Egypt for example, it is locatable in the Maat
principle articulated by the learned Memphite priests. According to Innocent
Onyenwuyi "Maat is the Egyptian concept of the principle which underlies
and governs the interrelationship of antithetical pairs or opposites and
brings about harmony, balance and justice among aspects of existence which
otherwise should be antagonistic and makes them complementary…"
(Onyenwuyi, 1993:252). The principles of creation, that is male/female,
hot/cold, eternal recurrence/eternal sameness, in their mode of functioning
illustrate a complementary relation (Ibid). Taken separately, each is an
individual aspect of life, distinct aspects that cannot single handedly
create life unless when working together in unity (Ibid). The notion of
distinctness of function, specialisation and harmony found in Plato's
psychology and theory of justice can be traced to the maat principle and some
other teachings of the Memphite priests. In African social relations,
the idea of complementarity is used to show how distinct individual efforts
can blend to achieve overall harmony and success in the community. At the
global or universal level, this principle is discernible in cross-cultural
exchange between the various blocks and continents of the world. It is argued
in this connection that an adequate understanding of the actual complementary
aspects and complementary potentials of diverse cultures would facilitate the
creation of a new world order devoid of political tension, economic hostilities
and other forms of violence and rancour. As we now prepare to see
complementarity in the light of quantum mechanics, it should be noted that
any disciplinary |
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
language in which the notion is
expressed does not affect its fundamental meaning _ "serving to
complete" and essential connotations like a balance or harmony of
opposites and "justice". Complementarity and Quantum
Mechanics Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg
and Louis Broglie contributed immensely to the development and interpretation
of quantum mechanics. But Max Planck, a German physicist-theorist has the
honour of being the propounder of quantum theory and the discoverer of
quantum mechanics. The theory accounts for the stability of the atom and
phenomena and holds that "in radiation, the energy of electrons is
discharged not continuously but in discrete amount or quanta" (Flower,
op, cit., 1004). Put differently, the quantum theory maintains that the
transfer of radiant energy occurs in bits and each bit is represented by the
smallest individual of a definite amount or quantum. The notions of
individualism and complementarity implicit in this theory with the attendant
shift from macrocosm to microcosm are inabnegatable. In a nutshell, quantum
mechanics not only articulates but also stresses "the autonomy and
individuality of components of the world" (Edlin, 1966:83). This
however, does not mean that nature is a dismembered entity lacking in
coordination. Quantum theory encouraged and
precedented the indeterminancy theory. According to Heisenberg, the proponent
in the 1933 Nobel Prize acceptance speech, "the indeterminacy relations
are an example of how in quantum mechanics, the precise knowledge of one
variable can exclude the exact knowledge of another" (Ibid). He also
posited that this interaction between various |
|
aspects of one and the same
physical process is illustrative of a complementary relation _ a relation
which is typical or characteristic of the type of conformity found in quantum
mechanics. By acknowledging the principle of complementarity in quantum
mechanics, Heisenberg was merly corroborating what Niels Bohr had already put
forward and substantiated _ electrons could after all behave like
"wavicles" (that is, waves and particles) as shown in the
experiments of A.B. Pippard and Kemmer (Pippard, 1962:85-86, 100). In the
description of reality, both wave and particles are simultaneously necessary.
Wavicle electrons rather make self evident the concept of complementarity
(Ibid: 189; Bohm, 1984:ix). There are those who hold that
although the theory of complementarity proceeds systematically from an exact
science like physics, it is neither dependent on Planck's quantum mechanics
nor on Heisenberg's indeterminacy relation. D.M. Mackey argues for example,
tht complementarity is not essentially a physical concept but a logical one.
Relative to this, Bohr admits that complementarity is not an exclusive
universal character (Edlin, op.cit: 84). I agree with him. Consequently, he
lists among other things that point to complementarity in his mind, biology
and the co-existence of diverse cultures. The mention of the co-existence of
diverse cultures makes relevant F. Copleston's assertion that cultural pluralism
are "complementary expressions of the human mind" (Copleston,
1980:vi-vii). Still on culture, E.W. Blyden once wrote that "in the
music of the universe, each brings forth a note, different but necessary for
the grand symphony" (Glele, 1991:189). Although Blyden is often times
mentioned in Negro and African political history, one cannot but appreciate
the manner in which his |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
statement aptly captures the
notions of divergence, strength of individualism, autonomy and harmony
embodied in quantum mechanics. Complementarity is discernible
in social relations. Eberhard Grisebach did not exactly use the word,
complement, yet he was able to demonstrate how this principle operates in the
social sphere by sighting the instance of how moral life in the family and
state depend largely on the extent to which each member can perform his
distinct function within his limit and without any hindrance or suppression.
Marriage is the most contrasting relationship among human beings. It is
within the confines of marriage that the element of necessary and unavoidable
conflict is displayed. The terms contrast and conflict have dialectic
implication. It may therefore be inferred that even in dialectics, be it the
Maatian, Platonic or Hegelian brands, the principle of complementarity
thrives. Summarily put, complementarity
in quantum mechanics designates an equilibriumatic relationship between the
parts of a system and the system as a whole. This sort of relationship is not
peculiar to physics only but can be found in other disciplines _ culture and
social relations inclusive. African social relation represents a concrete
interpretation of this principle in practical human interaction. Let us now
see how it worked in traditional African society. Complementarity in African
Social Relations Marriage denotes family. The
family is said to be the oldest institution on earth or the bedrock of
society as Aristotle puts it. The world over including Africa, societies are
constructed on a |
|
foundation provided by
families. In Africa, various tribes
existed. Many have survived up till date. These tribes were composed of
various family units. These families were made up of opposites _ male/female.
In each, the husband and wife plus the children had different tasks to carry
out daily to ensure the well-being of the community. Generally, it was believed
that every family unit was a part of the system and that should any of them
blunders in the course of performing its duties, the community would be in
shambles. This is comparable with biology where good health means that all
the cells, organs and systems of the anatomy are performing their distinct
functions properly. When any of the systems or organs malfunctions
continuously, the consequences would be illness and death. The whole is thus
the sum total of its parts in African social relations. As in quantum
mechanics, every individual activity must be recognised and emphasised. Traditional African society was
basically egalitarian and communalistic (Okadigbo, 1985:31). This does not,
however, imply that it was a society without blemish. Here different but
interrelated families made up an ethnic group. Custom was entrenched in
different ethnic groups. Ethnic groups are "social formations
distinguished by the communal character of their boundaries (Nnoli, 1978:5).
In the group, the private activities of one person affects the life of all
and sundry. I. Omoregbe gives an affirming hint on this point where he states
that African traditional philosophy is characteristically social. Man in this
context is a social being and any grave violation of the moral order for
example by incest could pollute both the culprit and the entire community
(Cunorregbe, |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1990:6). Reasons such as these informed
the training of children by the whole community. A child's conduct could be
monitored by a parent, a neighbour, a distant relative, an elder, etc. Every
adult had a right and an obligation to not only scold but correct any
recalcitrant youth. Prince Modupe in "Order of Manhood" recalls
that in ancient Africa, until a boy is fifteen or sixteen, the entire
community is jointly responsible for his growth and conduct" (Modupe,
1965:29). The educational system was also
complementary. The boys were trained for politics and defence of the land
while the girls received domestic training. The Poro society was an
institution for boys in Sierra Leone. Camera Laye exposes the role of Konden
Diarra and initiation in "rearing up" boys and the inestimable
moral, psychological, spiritual and material benefits derived from it (Laye,
1980:78, 106). Other parts of Africa also had their own version of
initiation. For example, J.D. Omercooper writes that the Bantu of South
Africa had a similar initiation ceremony. Such was the importance of this
extent among them that "men only counted their years of life after
initiation, boyhood being considered too insignificant to be worth recording"
(Omercooper, 1981:345). On the other hand, women were
prepared specifically for motherhood. The Efik are renowned for their
"Ufok Nkuho" known in English as "fattening home." Here
girls were trained in the intellectual, vocational and cultural fields. Most
importantly, they were trained to carry the responsibility of womanhood with
efficiency and pride. Such was its success that J.P. Ekarika could not but
commandingly comment that "Nkuho affords most probably |
|
the best preparation and
training for marriage and womanhood humanity has ever known" (Dkarika,
1984:92). The Sande society and the right of excision played similar roles in
Sierra Leone and Guinea. Generally, these women were conditioned to believe
that apart from being subordinates to their husbands, they would also have to
complement their efforts in farming, trading and children's upbringing. In
Igboland as in many other tribes, the extent a husband appreciated his wife
was determined by the degree of efficiency with which these chores were done
(Basden, 1966:90). In religion and politics the
complementary roles were also evident. In this regard, P. Amuary Talbot
observes that in war time for instance, "the Efik and Kalabari women
must show a bold front and a hopeful heart" (Talbot, 1966:331). Society
demanded that they should keep the home lively in the absence of the
warriors. They were also required to sacrifice at their shrine of the
principal god to guarantee the safety of the warriors. As we enter into the next
sub-topic, cognisance should be taken of the fact that communalism is not an
exclusive feature of African traditional societies. Every human society at
one stage or the other in its development practised communalism. But the
reason why many African scholars and Africanists claim that communalism is
peculiarly African is that the manner and intensity with which it was
practised, is unrivalled by no other culture (Okadigbo, Ibid). Whether or not
this claim is debunkable, is not an issue in contention here. Complementarity and Cultural
Universalism Each distint culture represents
various modes, manifestation |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
and interpretation of one
reality. The lesson of complementarity for us is that distinctness in
character and function does not necessarily connote anarchy. Consequently,
cultural diversity among nations of the world need not ferment distrust and
disunity. Western trained Nigerian physicians have for sometime now been
adapting certain aspects of traditional herbal medicine in their practice.
The East for instance, has borrowed from the west some cultural practices.
Japan has consciously and wisely selected from the vast array of choice
western technologies without compromising herself identity (Wiredu, 1992:61).
Put differently she has accepted those forms of western technology that blend
well with the tradition, beliefs and developmental aspirations of her people.
Western science on the other hand, known for its empirical rigidity is
becoming more and more flexible and accommodating of other possible
explanations of reality. Qi gong "the ancient Chinese art of healing
using breadth mind and body regulation exercise" is gaining wide
acceptance in United States' medical circles. In Monteney peninsular
community hospital, a surgeon in the true tradition of western science preps
…. (see page 293 of book) cuts while the qi gong master "uses his hands
to feel the energy fields". This combination according to the patients
makes healing incredibly fast 9Newsweek, Dec. 15, 1997:20). A blend of
acupuncture and western science has positive implications for all cultures.
It means, of course, that no culture is inferior, that lots of benefits
abound in cross-cultural exchange provided the affected countries do so
consciously and are also wise enough to select and appropriate only those
aspects of foreign culture perfectly in consonance with the hopes and
aspirations of her people. |
|
As the count-down to the
twenty-first century continues, any country that does not improve her
scientific and technological capacity shall be left behind. Technology,
particularly the electronic/computer type has become the undisputable yardstick
for the measurement of development and a determinant factor in economic
growth. Africa is deficient in this area. She requires an adequate
understanding and a mastery of the intricacies of manipulating science and
its technological by-products. Here she can consciously borrow from the west
only those aspects of technology that will not impede her human and moral
development. Aspects that will improve her quality of life and person should
be integrated with those areas of tradition that are still relevant. The point then, is that each
block, continent or nation can assess the other objectively. Each can
recognise her lack and then select from the variety of cultures those aspects
that would cater for her inadequacies. The west for one can inject in her
highly impersonal, cold monoideistic and atomistic culture the
humanity/humanness and warmth of African communalism. But the prospect of other
countries' culture emulating African culture in any significant respect is
particularly challenging. The African must work extra hard to erase the
derogatorily erroneous image given her by centuries of colonialism (and now
neo-colonialism). She could start by look within her (instead of the Paris
Club and IMF) for solution to her economic ordeals. More investments must be
made in researches. More funds should be invested
in researches that explore local means of dissolving some of our fundamental
crises. History, experience and our present predicament have shown that the
west |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
cannot provide answers to all
our questions. Respect is never presented on a platter of gold. Rather it is
earned. Africa can earn the respect of the global community if she exhibits
discipline, purposefulness and independence in solving her problems. The
result must be tangibly successful. This would be both an attestation and
encouragement to the rest of the world that something worth copying can
emerge from Africa. The world is a coherent and
harmonious whole. By the time diverse cultures are properly understood within
the framework of complementarity, the world shall no longer be seen as
essentially disparate entities. This may sound like utopianism. "But one
good thing about utopianism is that it may give us a clear idea of the things
worth struggling for" (Wiredu, 1998:78). Conclusion In so far as politics at its
"deepest level" remains "a function of culture",
apprehending the complementary aspect of diverse cultures shall diffuse
political tension within and among nations (Hyde, 1992:347). It shall foster
mutual respect. Human beings shall then come to accept that they are
essentially the same and that lots of benefits abound in a symbiotic
relationship between cultures. The fact of complementarity and cultural
exchange debunks the claim of Senghor and the traditionalists on the one
hand, Levy Bruhl and the classical anthropologists on the other, that
essentially biologic features like emotion and reason are each exclusive
qualities of a particular race (Irere, 1983:Introduction). Structurally,
reason and emotion are innate. What differs then, is neither reason nor
emotion, but their content. The mind with the aid of reason |
|
analyses, interprets and at
times fathoms the environment to which it is exposed. And since existing
environments are different modifications of a whole, the experiences of
men/women are bound to differ. The diverse experiences account for cultural
particularism. The ability to communicate
which is packaged in a basic and identical biological structure facilitates
intercultural relation, a relation which Wiredu advanced as a rationale for
cultural universalism. Kluckholm and Murray summarised this phenomenon thus:
"Every man is in certain respects like all other men, like some other
men and like no other men." Confucius had in the same vein, centuries
before ours declared that "that the nature of men is identical what
divides them is custom." To conclude, it is reiterated
that the reality of the principle of complementarity among polychromatic
cultures makes unassailable the fact that cultures are different aspects of
one entity or "complementary expressions of the human mind."
Conceptual polarisation, divergent views, apparently antagonistic processes
and attitudes are in the service of one system striving for equilibrium and
harmony. On this note, I make bold to conclude that there are cultural
universals. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
BIBLIOGRAPHY Baden, G. Among the Ibos of
Nigeria (London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.), 1966. |
|
Bohm, D. Causality in Modern
Physics (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul), 1984. Copleston, F. Philosophies and
Cultures, (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 1980. Dictionary of Philosophy,
(Moscow: Progress Publishers), 1984. Edlin, G. "Dialectics and
Complementarity", Philosophy Today, Vol. No. 2/4 Summer, 1966. Ekarika, J. Maidenhood:
Bourdoir Mysteries in Traditional Puberty Initiation, 1984. Flower, Flower Concise Oxford
Dictionary of Current English, (University Press), 1964. Glele, M. "Culture in Africa"
Africa Today, (London: Africa Books), 1991. Hyde, H. "Art for
Morality's Sake" in John Burr and Milton Goldinger (eds.), Philosophy
and Contemporary Issues, Sixth Edition (New York: MacMillan Pub. Co.), 1992. Hountondri, P. African
Philosophy: Myth and Reality, Introduction by Abiola Irele (London:
Hutchinson University Library), 1983. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Laye, C. The African Child
(Glasgow: Fontana Books), 1980. Modupe, P. "Order of
Manhood" in Paul Edwards (ed.), West African Narrative, (Lagos: Thomas
Nelson and Sons), 1965. Nnoli, D. Ethnic Politics in
Nigeria, (Enugu: Fourth Dimensional Pub.), 1978. Okadigbo, C. Conscience in
African Political Philosophy: Nkrumah's Critique, (Enugu: Fourth Dimensional
Pub.), 1985. Omercooper, J. "South
Africa at the Dawn of Nineteenth Century" in Anene and Brown (eds),
Africa in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, (Ibadan: Ibadan University
Press and Nelson and Sons Ltd.), 1966. Omoregbe, I. Knowing
philosophy, (Lagos: Joja Educational and Research Pub.), 1990. Onyenwuyi, I. The African
Origin of Greek Philosophy: An Exercise in Afro-centurism, (Nsukka:
University of Nigeria Press), 1993. Pippard, A. "Particles and
Waves" Wuanta and Reality, A Symposium Postscript by N.R. Hanson
(London), 1962. Rachels, J. "The Challenge
of Cultural Relativism" in Joel |
|
Feinberg (ed.), Reason and
Responsibility, (Belmot: Wadsworth Pub. And Co.), 1996. Talbot, P. Tribes of the
Niger-Delta, (London: Frank Cass and Co. Ltd.), 1967. Wiredu, K. Cultural Universals
ad Particulars: An African Perspective (Indiana: Indiana University Press),
1966. Wiredu, K. "Problems in
Africa's Self-Definition in the Contemporary World," in Kwasi Wiredu and
Kwame Oyeke, Person and Community, Ghana Philosophical Studies (Washington
D.C: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy), 1992. Wiredu, K. "Our Problem of
Knowledge: Brief Reflections on Knowledge and Development in Africa", in
Olusegun Oladipo (ed.), Remaking Africa: Challenges of the Twenty-first
Century, (Ibadan: Hope Publications), 1998. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|